Someone tells you a six-digit verification code. You look away from the message, type the digits, and seconds later may no longer remember them. That brief retention is the clearest territory of short-term memory : the temporary availability of a limited amount of information after the information itself is no longer present.

A shop reduces a €120 item by 25 percent and then adds a 10 percent tax. You could approach the problem by recalling procedures and calculating carefully. But another question comes first: what relationships do those percentages describe, and in what order do they operate?

Spatial problems ask us to do more than see what is in front of us: they require us to represent relationships, transform them mentally, and reason about what stays the same when objects or viewpoints change.

If someone tells you that a policy is provisional , you need to know more than the sound of the word. You need access to its meaning, understand how that meaning changes the sentence, connect it to the surrounding ideas and distinguish it from nearby concepts such as temporary , conditional or experimental .

Knowing what photosynthesis means is not the same cognitive achievement as inferring an unfamiliar pattern. Knowing why a constitutional court exists is different from solving a novel matrix.